Ceramics
From the ninth century, pottery was one of the
most widespread of the crafts. Potters occupied large quarters of
the towns in the region, producing both everyday ware and unique
pieces, and Afrasiab, Chach, Ferghana, Merv, Nasa, Khwarazm and
Nishapur were among the leading centres of ceramic production in
the ninth to the twelfth century.
The pottery of the period may be divided into two
main categories: glazed and unglazed ware. The unglazed ware can
be subdivided into several groups on the basis of the techniques
employed in its production. Vessels with moulded decoration were
still common in the eighth and ninth centuries although, with the
advance of ceramic technology, the archaic designs gave way to new
ones. Stamped ware became widespread in the twelfth century, with
that from Merv, the chief centre for its production in the area,
offering a particular wealth of decorative design. A vast craft-workers
quarter has been discovered there with large quantities of pottery,
mostly thin-walled mugs of grey clay and pot-bellied jugs, the surfaces
of which appear to have been entirely covered by a woven pattern.
Their bodies were made in qâlibs (moulds). The decorative
motifs were very varied: plant shoots, providing a background for
birds, animals, scenes of royal receptions, mythical creatures and
well-wishing epigraphic inscriptions. Combining these motifs, the
craftsmen created ornamental patterns running horizontally around
the bodies of the vessels.
Between the eighth and the twelfth century glazed
pottery appeared in the towns of Khurasan and Transoxania, achieving
a high level of technical sophistication. The main centre for glazed
pottery in the latter province was Afrasiab, but the wares from
Chach, Ferghana and Chaghaniyan were also well known at the time.
In Khurasan, the centres were Merv, Nasa, Abiward and, above all,
the school of Nishapur whose glazed ware was similar in style to
that of Afrasiab (Fig. 1). By the twelfth century, however, pottery
of the Afrasiab type was found only in Transoxania.
Afrasiab ware stands out not only in terms of the
high quality of the clay body, the glazes and the colours, but also
because of the refinement of its forms and patterns. The decorative
motifs most frequently encountered are sprouting plants, pomegranates
(flowers and fruit) and tulips. The letters of the epigraphic inscriptions
are often transformed into vegetal patterns, as are the tails and
beaks of birds. Geometric patterns consisting of wickerwork, squares
and triangles are the principal decorative feature of many vessels.
Pheasants, cocks, doves and ducks are among the most commonly depicted
birds, whereas the animals most often encountered are mountain goats,
horses, cheetahs and lions. Compositions depicting fish, which possessed
a religious significance, are quite frequent. All of these motifs
regularly occur together on the same piece. Anthropomorphic and
composite scenes are practically never found on Afrasiab pottery.
The decorative style employed on this ware developed
in its own particular way. In the ninth and tenth centuries there
was still a certain unity in the draughtsmanship and a naturalistic
approach to representation, although there was a tendency towards
stylization. The eleventh century witnessed a fundamental stylistic
transformation: the ornamental-decorative pattern became dominant
and all other design elements were made subordinate to it. A typical
example of this process is the transformation of birds or animals
into decorative elements by means of stylization.
The potters of Khurasan and Transoxania achieved
excellent results in their exploration of the decorative potential
of colour on glazed ceramics. Particularly elegant are the round
plates typical of Samarkand and Nishapur, with their white background
to which a fine design was applied in the form of inscriptions or
else stylized representations of birds or animals resembling letters
of the alphabet (Fig. 2). The
inscription occupied the rim of the plate and the remaining surface
was undecorated, a feature which lent this ware a characteristic
appeal. A high level of craftsmanship is evident in the glazed ware
of the period, with a typical olive-green pattern on a white background
or a black-and-white design on an ochre-brown background. Different
glazing techniques played a particularly important part in the artistic
effect achieved by glazed pottery; thus the transparent lead glaze
imparted a particular gloss to the ware.
For all their similarities, the ceramics of Afrasiab
and Nishapur differ in certain respects. Nishapur ware was influenced
by the art of the central regions of Iran; this influence found
expression in the iconography of the painting, which covered a much
greater range of motifs, and also in the techniques employed and
the style (see Fig. 3). We quite frequently encounter thematic compositions
on Nishapur ware which are never found on pottery from Afrasiab.
In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, centres
of ceramic art were re-established after the region recovered from
the Mongol invasions, but the artistic and technical quality of
the ware was inferior to that of the pre-Mongol period. Examples
of glazed pottery from this period are in a rather unexpressive
greenish-brown ware with a minute plant pattern.
The development of glazed pottery revived at the
end of the fourteenth and in the fifteenth century. As a result
of wide-ranging commercial links established with other countries
across Timurs empire, a new type of ceramic ware appeared
in Central Asia in the fifteenth century, imitating the imported
Chinese porcelain and based on the use of a local silicate body
and kashin. This porcelain-like ware was produced in various
towns of Central Asia, including Bukhara, Shahr-i Sabz, Merv and
Urgench, but the principal centre was Samarkand. Whereas the earliest
examples employed copies of Far Eastern motifs and themes, the local
craftsmen gradually began to introduce their own decorative elements
and a new syncretistic style took shape. The decorative artist positioned
birds, flowers, the mythical phoenix and wandering goats over the
surface of the plates at will. In addition to this imitation porcelain,
blue ware with a black underglaze design also circulated during
the Timurid period, mainly in the form of common household items
decorated with stylized vegetal patterns.
The difference between Timurid ceramics and those
of the pre-Mongol period involved changes both in the colour of
the ware and in the style of decoration. The artistic style employed
on the warm-toned ceramics of the tenth to the twelfth century was
replaced by the more graphic decorative style and colder hue of
the blue Timurid ware. At that time, the craftsmen making glazed
ware were also involved in the production of tiles for the façades
of buildings. These tiles were among the most outstanding achievements
of ceramic art in that period (Fig. 4).
In the sixteenth century the artistic traditions
of the previous century were still maintained in glazed pottery,
but towards the end of the century the costly imported cobalt was
replaced by pigments of a lower quality and the kashin body
gave way to clay. This affected the entire appearance of the ware,
which became coarser and thick-walled.