Part Three
HINDU AND BUDDHIST ARTS AND CRAFTS: TILES, CERAMICS AND POTTERY
(A. H. Dani)

In this early medieval period of northern India, there is evidence of continuity in the popular art of the local people and of a marked change introduced by migrating peoples from Central Asia further north, such as the Türks, Gujars and other tribes who integrated themselves into the Rajput ruling system. As Buddhism was now mostly confined to Afghanistan and north-western India, Buddhist material may be recognized in the late phase of Buddhist survival here, e.g. at Bhamala (5) and Giri (6) in Taxila and from late terracotta and stucco figures from Taxila and Bamiyan. These figures present new ethnic elements which spread down through the Indus region and penetrated into Rajasthan and the western part of the Gangetic plain and created the Rajput style of art.

At Bhamala, the stupa court was paved, probably at this late phase of the monastic survival, by terracotta tiles with a coating of lime plaster. These tiles were laid flat and divided into squares with lines of tiles-on-edge between them. Here the arrangement of tiles assumes the form of the ‘Wheel of Law’, the spokes and rims of which are formed of tile-on-edge. At another place in front of a cell, the tiles bear a variety of patterns incised on their faces, e.g. crosses, spirals, double-axes, swastikas, lotus rosettes, concentric circles, quatrefoils of pipal leaves, etc.(7)

In the Indus region, the Türks (the Turushkas of Sanskrit literature) created the Hindûshâhi style of terracotta and ceramic art, one that was significant for terracotta human and animal figurines. One example was found in the upper layers of the Damkot excavation.(8) A handmade male figure shown in a kneeling position with hands tied in front, it has pinched facial features with a high arched nose and punctured eyes, and a mouth depicted by a slit, and it wears roundels at the ears and a turban on the head. It is thickly coated with red slip and painted black on the eyebrows, arms, waist and feet.

In contrast to the above, we find a distinctive variety of terracotta figurines from Bajaur which show typical Turkic facial types and wear long, flowing garments for both men and women. Two examples from the Islamabad Museum are female figurines holding babies in their arms. One of them (Fig. 12) is seated on a pitcher stool with her legs prominently shown in front. Her fat body bulges out on the seat, while she has a V-shaped bejewelled neck ornament. She also has broad muscular cheeks with her nose pinched and a slit mouth, and her eyes are applied and incised. The back of her head is pressed. The other figurine (Fig. 13) is in a standing pose and wears a long, flowing robe to her feet. Her nose is also pinched, but the eyes are just incised. She has an ornamented cap on her head. Both the figures present a new ethnic type. A third terracotta object shows an elephant (Fig. 14) with its trunk partly broken. On the body of the elephant several lamps have been placed, suggesting that such lamp-loaded elephants were probably used for ritual purposes.

Ceramic and pottery types are found in upper layers of historical sites throughout this region, and have been described by the excavators from sites such as Ahichchhatra, Charsada, Tulamba and Damkot. At Mundigak in southern Afghanistan there is an abrupt change, and we find here plain bowls and jars in red and reddish brown.(9) A difference in decoration is seen in the late pottery from the ruins of Ahichchhatra in Bareily district, Uttar Pradesh, from strata II and I, dated respectively to 750–850 and 850–1100. The most common type is a variety of ‘decorative bowls’ which are made in mould and bear designs in relief on the slipped red ground. The decorations are geometric patterns of oblique or cross-hatchings or concentric semi-circles, lotus petals, various shapes of rosettes, together with or alternating with conch-shells, scrolls and arabesques. Other types include miniature jars, a double-spouted jar and cooking vessels, sometimes with long handles. Pedestalled bowls, probably used as incense-burners, have also been recovered. These also bear decorations consisting of incised rectilinear or curvilinear geometric patterns, spirals, zigzags and nick. Conch-shells in relief are also seen.(10)

Sir Mortimer Wheeler has given a detailed classification of the late pottery found in his excavation at Charsada (the Bala Hisar mound) and he places them ‘as early as the eighth century A.D.’(11) Such potsherds have often been discovered in association with the glazed ware that was introduced by the Muslim incomers to the north-western Indian plains. The chief characteristic of the Hindu-style pottery shows a buff jar with friezes of stamped notches and rosettes; a brown jar with horizontal linear and looped patterns in white paint, and a buff rim with stamped parallel bars; a reddish buff bowl with friezes of stamped circles, rosettes and lines, and with a ram’s head spout; reddish-brown ware with stamped rosettes, lozenges and triangles, slashed handles and slashed ears or frills; and a reddish buff jar with oblique slashes round the shoulder. All this pottery is of a buff or reddish buff colour. Among the varieties, one may easily recognize a flat bowl with out-turned lip; a carinated water jar with round base and narrow mouth; a trough-like bowl with tapering sides; a flat-based cooking tray; round-bottomed cooking pots; and many other kinds of bowls and water jars, handled cups and drinking bowls. These varieties clearly reflect the social life of the people who were using them. The most important items missing are tall glasses meant for drinking and flat thalis, generally used for eating food. In their place we have wide open bowls with tapering sides meant for drinking; wide open bowls with curved sides for eating; and cooking pots and water vessels for bringing water from a distance. At Tulamba in Khanewal district of the Multan Division in modern Pakistan, a complete sequence of historical remains has been found for the periods III, IV and V, spanning the eighth to the sixteenth century. The most outstanding feature of these periods was the emergence of ‘Tulamba stamped ware’, with a bewildering variety of over 200 designs, some showing parallels with those from stratum I of Ahichchhatra. The pottery of period III is of varied types, consisting of both thick and thin vessels. The painted pottery, which occurred profusely in period III, has designs painted either directly on the body of the vessels or over red slip in black colour. The designs consist of groups of parallel lines, triangles, loops, cross-hatching and zigzag lines. The pottery stamped with designs on the shoulder of the vessel is different from the pottery with impressed designs. The latter designs consist of volutes, squares, diamonds, wheels, circles, eyes, ducks, human faces and elliptical and wavy forms. These are usually decorated with rays around the outer edge or small dots within or outside a motif. On many specimens, the designs overlap and thus are only partially visible because of irregular stamping. The ware is generally made of well-levigated clay and is extremely hard. Among the varieties of pots we have a large pan, a bowl with tapering sides or with incurved sides, a small cup, a water pitcher, cooking vessels, a flat-based dish, varieties of oil lamps and many kinds of storage jars for food and water. Again there is an absence of flat thalis and drinking glasses. The predominance of bowls, both for drinking and eating purposes, shows the usage of the time. The cooking vessels and the water pitchers follow the traditional types.(12)

Similar pottery has also been found from period IV of Sarai Khola in Taxila.(13) The pottery assemblage is mainly represented by an overwhelming majority of pieces in the red ware tradition. It is mostly undecorated and plain, but some of it is painted in black. However, we also find incised decoration showing triangular designs and many lines. Among the varieties of forms we have water pitchers, bowls, storage vessels, lids, incense-burners and handled jars. These varieties show a close resemblance to the late pottery from Charsada and Damkot in Dir district. Here again, bowls of different types predominate.

The fortified site of Damkot near Chakdara has yielded, in its stratum V, material of the Hindûshâhi period. The hallmark of this ceramic industry also shows stamped designs, consisting of rosettes, concentric circles and impressed parallel bars and dots. Among the varieties of pots we find storage vessels; a water pitcher; bowls of various kinds; a cooking vessel and a kneeding trough with flat base and straight and curved sides; handled pots; and others. We also get pedestalled bowls showing excellent surface treatment and painted designs on the inside. The handled pots, in which the handles are very often roughly striated, are found in large numbers. Similarly spouted vessels with plain or decorated spouts are found very frequently. The painted decoration of motifs includes horizontal bands, loops, hatched or solid triangles, vertical strokes and other floral patterns, usually executed in black, though sometimes also in white. The most distinctive motif is the group of triple leaves suspended from a stem.(14)

On the whole, we find new types only in terracotta specimens that speak not only of new human elements but also of a new style in dress and coiffure. But the ceramic and the pottery types are decorated in a simple fashion, mainly by stamping and incision. The characteristic types show varieties of bowls, cooking vessels and water pitchers. Pedestalled bowls and cups and lamps with pinched mouths were used for ritual purposes.